Thursday, November 28, 2019

Best SAT Math Prep Books (2019) Expert Reviews

Best SAT Math Prep Books (2019) Expert Reviews SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips While there are many differentSAT prep books, they all have one thing in common: they allclaim to be the best. How canyou figure outwhich one will actually helpyou succeed on the SAT? This guide will give you myrecommendations for the best prep books for theMath section of the SAT.Some of these books are best for strategies and thinking through the problems, while others are best for practice problems. A few are geared toward top scorers, while somewill help you improve a low score fast. Before delving into the list, I have to make one disclaimer: Disclaimer Everyone's learning styles and motivation levels are unique. Thus, I don't believe there's a one-size-fits-all book out there that will help everyone equally. While these recommendations should help a lot of students, they can't necessarily account for everyone's individual differences. That's why I'm a huge proponent of PrepScholar's online method of test prep. It diagnoses your strengths and weaknesses and customizes the test prep for you and your schedule. Because of this high level of personalization, it's very effective forhelping students study efficiently and make big leaps in their SAT scores. That being said, prep books can be very helpful in reviewing material and giving you practice with hundreds of sample SAT questions. It's great that you're already starting to break your test prep down by section by focusing specifically on math. Since the best representation of SAT questions come from the test makers themselves, I'll start this list with College Board's The Official SAT Study Guide. There are some pros and cons to this book, but perhaps the biggest con is that you can find these same eight practice tests for free online!Read on to decide whether or not this book would be helpful to you. The College Board's Official SAT Study Guide Price:About $19 Pros When it comes to the SAT, the best sample questions come directly from the test makers themselves.College Board's The Official SAT Study Guideincludes eight real practice tests with official answer explanations. Since College Board makes and administers the SAT, thisbook contains the best representation of the real test. However, and this is an important point, College Board has also released PDFs of every chapter and practice test in the book on its website!As part of its efforts toward greater transparency and equalizing access to test prep, College Board has published its practice tests and offered free resources via Khan Academy. The College Boardbook's main strength is its official SAT questions, since they are the very best practice material. Beyond the practice tests, the book's greatest strengths are its review of the overall test structure and format, its presentation of math concepts, and its description of the new essay. Since the SAT is a written test, it's a good idea to have hard copies of practice tests to gain practice in the most authentic way.Whether this means buying this book or printing out the free tests yourself is up to you. College Board's real questions will get you familiar with how questions are worded, how they're arranged, and other patterns of the SAT. You'll gain practice with the new structure, which gives you a 65-minute Reading section, 35-minute Writing section, and two math sections. The eight full-length practice tests add upto 24 hours of prep or 32 hours if you include the essay section. Cons While College Board's official questions are helpful and effective practice, their answer explanations are not as detailed as they could be. They explain the answer choices but don't give you much information about how to approach and think through the question. Since there are a limited number of officialpractice tests, you might choose to stagger each one throughout your prep as a way to measure your progress and evaluate your approach. The tests could be best used as measuring posts; College Board's official material won't help you as much as some other options in terms of learning and test-taking strategies. Overall, you should familiarize yourself with the material in this book, since it contains the most accurate practice questions compared to any other source. Whether you choose to do so with a hard copy of the book or via College Board's website (for free) is a matter of personal preference. Now that you know where and how to locate official College Board practice problems, let's discuss the best math prep books, starting with the best book for content instruction. Best SAT Math Prep Book for Instruction Steve Warner's SAT MathSeries Price:About $30 Pros Steve Warner offers several SAT math books. The best one for content instruction isNew SAT Math Problems, but you can also find workbooks geared towards students in certain scoring levels. New SAT Math Problems is one of the best books out there for content review and instruction. He discusses the new areas emphasized on the test:Problem Solving and Data Analysis, Heart of Algebra, Geometry and Trigonometry, and Passport to Advanced Math. The book arranges concepts and their corresponding practice problems in level of difficulty, from Level 1 up to Level 4. This organizationby level, rather than problem type, is useful, as it allows you to integrate skills and ensure you don't leave out any important concepts. It also lets students focus on the difficulty level that will help them most improve their scores, with students scoring around a 600 advised to focus on Levels 2 through 4 and students aiming for 700+ directed to the Level 4 and 5 problems. The lessons are carefully crafted and paired with practice problems to test your understanding. The questions are realistic and come with detailed explanations, which often go overa few different approaches (unlike College Board's single approach explanations). These explanations allow you to carefullyunderstand your mistakes while learning how to approach a similar question the next time. Cons One major con to this book is simply its restricted length. Compared to Steve Warner's multiple-issue series on the math section of the old SAT, his currentbooks don'trepresent the same scope of material that was so useful to students at all different scoring levels. Not only will future additions be helpful, but they will ideally break down the concepts into even smaller components. This book is a good start, but students who want to review concepts would be best served with a detailed and specific breakdown of each and every one. If you're using this book, you may want to consult other resources to ensure that you've filled in every gapin knowledge for the SAT. Finally, the New SAT Math Problemsbook may not contain a sufficient number of practice problems for your prep. Its strength lies in content instruction and review with practice problems interspersed by concept and difficulty level. If you're looking for a large set of practice problems to test your knowledge, then the next book on this list would be a better resource. Best SAT Math Books for Practice Questions Dr. Jang's SAT 800 Math Workbook for the New SAT Price:About $25 Pros If you're looking for math practice problems, you'll find over 1,500 in Dr. Jang's Math Workbook for the New SAT. This book discusses math topics and concepts, but its real strength lies in the sheer number of practice problems. Since timing yourself, answering questions, and analyzing your mistakes is a key part of your preparation, this book could be a very effective study tool. The practice problems throughout the book are arranged by difficulty level, so if you've got a certain question type mastered then you can challenge yourself with harder ones. Additionally, Dr. Jang's Math Workbook has a diagnostic test at the beginning and 10 sample tests that you can take under test-like conditions. Not only are the practice questions abundant, but they are realistic. You'll find the addition of trigonometry, and the questions will be marked as non-calculator and calculator. This book is well customized to the concepts, format, and rules of the SAT. Cons As mentioned above, this book is most useful for its abundance of practice problems. It's less ideal for students looking for thorough content review. It also is not the best source of test-taking strategies, like time management. Furthermore, its answer explanations are not all that varied, so you won't gain a ton of insight into different approaches you could use to solve a problem. Dr. Jang's Math Workbook is useful for students at all levels, but you'd probably want to supplement it with a book that provided more in-depth instruction, strategies, and explanations. While the above books cater to students at various scoring levels, the two books below are best for strong math students aiming for top scores. Barron's Math Workbook Price:About $12 Pros Barron's Math Workbook has hundreds of practice SAT math questions, all with detailed answer explanations. The questions are divided by content area and concept, so you can learn about a specific skill and then drill with relevant problems. In addition to all of the practice questions, there are two full-length practice tests at the end of the book. You'll also get some test-taking tips, but the real strength of the book lies in its abundance of practice questions. Cons Students have noted some typos and spelling errors in Barron's, as if the company rushed to get the book to print without thorough copyediting first. It doesn't seem to have substantial mistakes, but these little typos can be distracting, especially as you're going through the detail-oriented work of SAT prep. As a traditional SAT book, it's written in astraightforward style that can get a bit dry and boring. If you're looking for a more engaging, personable, or funny writing style, you won't find it in Barron's. Of course, since the book is more of a workbook full of practice questions, you should look elsewhere for in-depth lessons and content review. Best SAT Math Books for High Scorers PWN the SAT Math Guide Price:About $29 Pros PWN the SAT is geared towards highly achieving, motivated students aiming for a top score in SAT Math. The book is written in an engaging, irreverent style,which helps students stay engaged with the material. It's divided into five categories: Techniques, Heart of Algebra, Passport to Advanced Math, Problem Solving and Data Analysis, and Additional Topics in Math. The book breaks down each SAT Math category into its component concepts. It has realistic practice problems that are designated as either "Calculator" or "No calculator" to help you get ready for both question types. Each chapter also provides a list of official questions of a certain type to help you drill specific skills. Finally, you can register on the PWN SAT website to get bonus material, as well as watch video answer explanations that walk you through practice problems, step by step. Cons The main con of PWN the SAT Math Guide is that its target audience is limited. It will help top scorers with strong math skills, but it won't be as accessible to students who struggle with math. If you're looking for foundational knowledge, then PWN the SAT isn't the book for you. It won't be the best resource to raise low math scores. Rather, it's better to bring already strong scores into the top percentiles. Dr. John Chung's SAT Math: 60 Perfect Tips and 15 Complete Tests Price:About $39 Pros As compared to College Board's four practice tests, 15 is certainly an improvement! Dr. Chung's SAT Math book is one of the most comprehensive currently out there in terms of content and practice questions in one place. This book is best for strong math students and top scorers. It doesn't go over the fundamentals and assumes its readers have a stable foundation in math concepts. It advertises itself as "designed for students to get a perfect score" and provides useful examples and practice questions to this end. The 60 "perfect tips" are brief descriptions of concepts, like linear function, exponents, transformations, and average speeds, paired with a few examples and practice problems to reinforce your understanding. Cons First, because there aren't a lot of copes available anymore, this book can be quite expensive. Additionally, Dr. Chung does not give you much in the way of review, lessons, or concept reinforcement. The book mostly assumes you have a strong foundation in math.It's a "no-frills" kind of book that essentially looks like a list of practice problems; you won't find much in the way of introduction or narrative. It's not a book you can fully rely on for your test prep, and it's probably not the best one to start out with, either. Some students have also noted some typos in Dr. Chung'svarious editions, as if the books wererushed to publication without proofreading for all the errors. While it's great that this bookhas so many practice questions, it seems like there may besome careless mistakes throughout the material. Finally, this book is not particularly descriptive of the changes to the SAT. It contains relevant practice problems, but it doesn't go into detail about new skills and question types or even the new structure. Make sure to familiarize yourself with the changes, like the addition of trigonometry and non-calculator questions, outside of this book. The 150 Hardest SAT Math Problems Reincarnated for the New SAT Price:About $10 Pros The 150 Hardest SAT Math Problems Reincarnated for the New SATwas designed for the "A+ student who wants to go from 700 to a perfect score" and doesn't want to waste her time on "fodder problems." This book collected the trickiest questions that most students missed over the last ten years of SAT administrations. According to the author, he "reincarnated" these questions in the format of the new SAT. These questions are useful for top scorers who want to make sure they understand fundamental concepts of algebra, geometry, and numbers and how to apply them to the most challenging question types. At the same time, this book has some major weaknesses that you should understand before purchasing a copy. Cons The author maintains that his problems have been "reincarnated" to fit the redesigned test, but he doesn't seem to have changed much beyond reducing the answer choices from five to four. He does include some non-calculator questions, but other than that the author downplays the major changes that were madeto the SAT in early 2016. For instance, he includes numbers, algebra, and geometry, but no trigonometry. He also provides little explanation of the new SAT's focus on real-world word problems and scenarios. Since the math section is the one that changed the least on the SAT, these recycled problems from SATs past will still help you prepare. At the same time, make sure you're aware of the changes that are being made and supplement these questions with ones more specific to the redesigned SAT. Finally, these next two books are useful for the average math student who wants to shore up her foundation in the fundamentals or can only dedicate a limited amount of time to studying. Best SAT Math Books for Low Scorers If you're planning to devote only a few hours to studying for the math SAT, these books should give you a general overview and introduction to the concepts you need to know. However, if you are taking a more active approach to your test prep, then these are the books you should probably avoid. They're not so helpful for trulyin-depth understanding and preparation. Kaplan Price:About $12 Pros Kaplan's SAT Math Prep Bookis a traditional prep book that reviews concepts and provides corresponding practice sets. It includes new concepts, like trigonometry, and has 16 practice sets and over 250 practice problems. Kaplan's book also breaks down the new format and structure of the SAT Math section, while many other books do not. It's a useful tool for learning about the new SAT, reviewing 16 key concepts, and trying out practice problems. Cons Kaplan's practice questions tend not to be the best written. They're not always realistic or phrased in the same way that the SAT is.In the beginning of this guide, I emphasized the importance of taking official College Board tests, since they're the best representation of the questions you'll get on test day. Kaplan's questions usually represent the other end of this spectrum, because they don't always resemble actual SAT questions. Doingwell on the SAT math is not just about understanding the concepts, but also about understanding the SAT and being able to apply those concepts to the SAT's uniquely worded questions. Without this practice, you won't be asprepared as you could be for the SAT's unique phrasing and tricks. Doing well is also about strategy.Kaplan has some strategies, but they're not that helpful for breaking away from a score of around 600. Kaplan gives a basic overview, but it's not the most helpful resources for students looking to make a large score improvements or understand the material in depth. A second book for students who are not planning to do all that muchSAT prep is Bob Miller's SAT Math for the Clueless. Bob Miller's SAT Math for the Clueless: The Easiest and Quickest Way to Prepare for the New SAT Math Section Price:About $6 Pros While I'm not a big fan of the title, Bob Miller's SAT Math for the Cluelessbook delivers what it says it will - an easy and quick way to prepare for the SAT. It provides a mix of material for the current SAT and theredesigned SAT. While Dr. Chung's Math Workbook is spare, Bob Miller's book has funny and accessible introductions. If you find it hard to focus on math without some humor, you might find this book more engaging (a useful characteristic when you're self-studying with books). Cons Bob Miller's SAT Math focuses more on strategies, techniques, and introductory review than on practice questions. It also lacks an in-depth description of changes being made to the SAT, and it doesn't incorporate the more advanced math problems. This book is really just for the self-described "clueless" math students who want a brief, accessible review. Perhaps it will spark your motivation to move onto better study guides with more comprehensive SAT preparation. So there you have it, my recommendations for instruction, practice problems, high scorers, and low scorers. There are pros and cons of each, and hopefully there will be books of ever higher quality published over the next few months. One challenge that all the above booksshare is the self-discipline that required tostudyfrom them.You'll have to set your own schedule, score your own tests, and learn via reading and writing, rather than incorporating visual or auditory approaches. With these considerations in mind, is solely studying for the SAT from books the best option for you as a learner? Is Studying From Books the Best Option for You? While books used to be the main test prep method for the SAT, now there are lots of other approaches. This gives you a lot more choice in finding a method that fits best with your math level, study style, and goals, not to mention how much money you're able and willing to spend on SAT prep. Books can be affordable, but as you can see from the pros and cons mentioned above, you probably want to use more than one book to truly prepare. This can add up to hundreds of dollars. As more and more test prep companies focus their attention online, you might have to go online to find answers, answer explanations, and other supplementary materials. This could divide your attention while still leaving it up to you to spend a long time scoring your own tests. Books can be very comprehensive and informative, but you'll only access all theinformation you need with the self-discipline to take time to study and learn from your mistakes. PrepScholar's method of online test prepfor the new SAT attempts to address and make up for these weaknesses in a number of ways. One, it's an all-in-one program that incorporates the best practices from all these books, while also customizing the test prep based on what you already know and what you need to study further. It addresses the accountability and self-discipline issue by planning our your study schedule for you in the way that's been proven to be most effective. It also takes away the time-waster of self scoring, since it will give you instant feedback on your performance.On a similar note, you can visually see your progress, how far you've gone in the material and how much you have to left to conquer. By incorporating the "pros" of every test prep book - high-quality questions, comprehensive explanations, diagnostic tests, and expert test-taking strategies - and making up for the cons with personalized motivators and progress reports, PrepScholar is an affordable, accessible, and highly effective method of convenient online prep for the new SAT. Just as you should diagnose your strengths and weaknesses to best prepare for the SAT, you'd be smart to reflect on your learning style and what method of test prep, whether through books or online, will best meet your needs and allow you to excel on all sections of the SAT. What's Next? Are you aiming for perfection? This perfect SAT scorer describes all the strategies and techniques he used to achieve a full score on the SAT, and what exactly you need to do to reach that perfect score. Besides studying, planning exactly when you're going to take the SAT is also a key consideration for maximizing your performance. Read all about when you should take the SAT as you design your schedule. Perhaps you've noticed that theSAT is looking a lot like the ACT these days. If you're deciding which test to take, check out our detailed comparison of the SAT and the ACT. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today!

Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Free Essays on Lord Why Am I Black

Lord, Why Did You Make Me Black? Lord, Lord. Why did You make me Black? Why did You make someone the world wants to hold back? Black is the color of dirty clothes, the color of grimy hands and feet Black is the color of darkness, the color of tire-beaten streets. Why did You give me thick lips, a broad nose and kinky hair? Why did You make someone who receives the hatred stare? Black is the color of the bruised eye when someone gets hurt. Black is the color of darkness. Black is the color of dirt. How come my bonestructure's so thick, my hips and cheeks are high? How come my eyes are brown and not the color of daylight sky? Why do people think I'm useless? How come I feel so used? Why do some people want to hate me and not know the person within? Black is what people are "listed" when others want to keep them away. Black is the color of shadows cast. Black is the end of the day. Lord you know my own people mistreat me and I know this just ain't right. They don't like my hair. They say I'm too dark or too light. Lord don't You think it's time for you to make a change? Why don't You re-do creation and make everyone the same? GOD ANSWERED: Why did I make you Black? Why did I make you Black? Get off your knees and look around. Tell me, what do you see? I didn't make you in the image of darkness, I made you in likeness of ME! I made you the color of coal from which beautiful diamonds are formed. I made you the color of oil, the black gold that keeps people warm. I made you from the rich, dark earth that can grow the food you need. Your color's the same as the black stallion, a majestic animal is he. I didn't make you in the image of darkness. I made you in likeness of ME! All the colors of the heavenly rainbow can be found throughout every nation. But when all of those colors were blended, you became my greatest creation. Your hai... Free Essays on Lord Why Am I Black Free Essays on Lord Why Am I Black Lord, Why Did You Make Me Black? Lord, Lord. Why did You make me Black? Why did You make someone the world wants to hold back? Black is the color of dirty clothes, the color of grimy hands and feet Black is the color of darkness, the color of tire-beaten streets. Why did You give me thick lips, a broad nose and kinky hair? Why did You make someone who receives the hatred stare? Black is the color of the bruised eye when someone gets hurt. Black is the color of darkness. Black is the color of dirt. How come my bonestructure's so thick, my hips and cheeks are high? How come my eyes are brown and not the color of daylight sky? Why do people think I'm useless? How come I feel so used? Why do some people want to hate me and not know the person within? Black is what people are "listed" when others want to keep them away. Black is the color of shadows cast. Black is the end of the day. Lord you know my own people mistreat me and I know this just ain't right. They don't like my hair. They say I'm too dark or too light. Lord don't You think it's time for you to make a change? Why don't You re-do creation and make everyone the same? GOD ANSWERED: Why did I make you Black? Why did I make you Black? Get off your knees and look around. Tell me, what do you see? I didn't make you in the image of darkness, I made you in likeness of ME! I made you the color of coal from which beautiful diamonds are formed. I made you the color of oil, the black gold that keeps people warm. I made you from the rich, dark earth that can grow the food you need. Your color's the same as the black stallion, a majestic animal is he. I didn't make you in the image of darkness. I made you in likeness of ME! All the colors of the heavenly rainbow can be found throughout every nation. But when all of those colors were blended, you became my greatest creation. Your hai...

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Why More People Drown in Fresh Water Than Salt Water

Why More People Drown in Fresh Water Than Salt Water Drowning in fresh water is different from drowning in salt water. For one, more people drown in fresh water than salt water. Around 90% of drownings occur in freshwater, including swimming pools, bathtubs, and rivers. This is partly because of the chemistry of the water and how it affects osmosis. Drowning in Salt Water Drowning involves suffocating while in water. You dont even need to breathe in the water for this occur, but if you do inhale salt water, the high salt concentration will prevent the water from crossing into your lung tissue. When people drown in salt water, its usually because they cant get oxygen or expel carbon dioxide. Breathing in salt water creates a physical barrier between the air and your lungs. A person who has inhaled salt water will not be able to breathe again until the salt water is removed. However, that does not mean there wont be lingering effects. Salt water is hypertonic to the ion concentration in lung cells, so if you swallow it the water from your bloodstream will enter your lungs to compensate for the concentration difference. This will cause your blood to thicken, putting a strain on your circulatory system. Extreme stress on your heart can lead to cardiac arrest within eight to 10 minutes. The good news is that its relatively easy to rehydrate your blood by drinking water, so if you survive the initial experience, you are well on the road to recovery. Drowning in Fresh Water Surprisingly, you can die from breathing in fresh water even hours after you have avoided drowning in it. This is because fresh water is more diluted with respect to ions than the fluid inside your lung cells. Fresh water doesnt cross into your skin cells because keratin essentially waterproofs them, but water will rush into unprotected lung cells to try to equalize the concentration gradient across the cell membranes. This can cause massive tissue damage, so even if the water is removed from your lungs there is still a chance you might not recover. Heres what happens: Fresh water is hypotonic compared to lung tissue. When water enters the cells, it causes them to swell. Some of the lung cells may burst. Because capillaries in your lungs are exposed to the fresh water, water enters the bloodstream, diluting your blood. This causes blood cells to burst (hemolysis). Elevated plasma K (potassium ions) and depressed Na (sodium ion) levels may disrupt the hearts electrical activity heart, causing ventricular fibrillation. Cardiac arrest from the ion imbalance may occur in as little as two to three minutes. Even if you survive the first few minutes underwater, acute renal failure may occur from the burst blood cells in your kidneys. If you drown in cold fresh water, the temperature change as the water enters your bloodstream may even cool your heart enough to cause cardiac arrest from hypothermia. On the other hand, in salt water, the cold water does not enter your bloodstream, so the effects of temperature are mainly limited to heat loss across your skin.

Saturday, November 23, 2019

Essential Tips for Producing Great News Features

Essential Tips for Producing Great News Features A news feature is a kind of story that focuses on a hard-news topic. News features combine a feature writing style with hard-news reporting. Here are a few tips for producing news features. Find a Topic Thats Doable News features typically try to shed light on problems in our society, but many people doing news features for the first time try to tackle topics that are just too large. They want to write about crime, or poverty or injustice. But books- indeed, hundreds of books- can and have been written about subjects so broad. What you need to do is find a narrow, focused topic that can be covered reasonably well in the space of a 1,000-to-1,500-word news feature. Want to write about crime? Focus on one particular neighborhood or even a specific housing complex, and narrow it down to one type of crime. Poverty? Pick a particular kind, whether its homeless people on the streets of your city or single mothers who cant feed their kids. And again, narrow your scope to your community or a neighborhood. Find Real People News features tackle important topics but theyre still like any other kind of feature- theyre people stories. That means you have to have real people in your stories who will bring the topic youre discussing to life. So if youre going to write about homeless people youll need to interview as many as you can find. If youre writing about a drug epidemic in your community youll need to interview addicts, cops and counselors. In other words, find people who are on the front lines of the issue youre writing about, and let them tell their stories. Get Plenty of Facts and Stats News features need people, but they also need facts and plenty of em. So if your story claims there is a methamphetamine epidemic in your community, you need to have the facts to back that up. That means getting arrest statistics from cops, treatment numbers from drug counselors, and so on. Likewise, if you think homelessness is on the rise, youll need numbers to back that up. Some evidence can be anecdotal; a cop saying hes seeing more homeless people on the streets is a good quote. But in the end, theres no substitute for hard numbers. Get the Expert View At some point, every news feature needs an expert to talk about the issue being discussed. So if youre writing about crime, dont just talk to the beat cop: interview a criminologist. And if youre writing about a meth epidemic, talk to meth users, yes, but also interview someone whos studied the drug and its spread. Experts lend news features authority and credibility. Get the Big Picture Its crucial to have a local focus for a news feature, but its also good to give a broader perspective. So if youre writing about homelessness in your town, try to find some stats on homelessness nationwide. Or if your story is on a local meth epidemic, find out if other cities around the country are seeing the same thing. This big picture kind of reporting shows that theres a larger context to the issue youre writing about. As for finding national statistics, federal government agencies crunch numbers on virtually every aspect of our lives. So check out their websites.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Do Newspapers Have a Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Do Newspapers Have a Future - Essay Example Newspapers have some problems inherent within them that can possibly be the cause of their decline in popularity (Gawenda, 2008). First of all, most newspapers are in black and white which provide a drab and boring source of information. Readers prefer a more illustrious and colorful source, which can provide them with vivid pictures of the occurring events. Moreover, the print in newspapers is usually of such a small size, that it is difficult and uncomfortable for readers to easily read it. Unfortunately, newspapers do not have a zoom in option. It is also very difficult to handle newspapers because of their size and to flip through them. Often the pages and sections all fall out and get mixed up while a person skims through the newspaper. Some newspapers are also available in color, however, the quality of the paper and the photographs is still of low quality which may not be as attractive to the reader. Readers usually prefer glossy photographs printed on laser paper which gives the reader a more exciting and clearer experience of reading the news (Vivian, 2008). However, the problems are not only limited to the design and texture of newspapers. Problems may also exist in the content of newspapers. Most newspapers tell the story the way it is and provide an unbiased opinion. Hence, readers only read the facts and do not get a dose of what is called â€Å"extra spicy† news. The small articles printed in newspapers do provide essential information regarding everyday happenings in the world, yet sometimes they do not provide a vivid description or full information regarding the event and only stick to the general and most basic facts. In addition, newspapers contain many sections which include the business section, classified ads, and many others (Conboy & Steel, 2008). Some of the articles and the information may be irrelevant to the reader’s interest and the reader may only be interested in the entertainment section, front page, and classified ads. Hence, he/she finds it inconvenient to purchase the full newspaper for this purpose. Newspapers are also available for a price, which the reader may not find worth the trouble of purchasing one. Another issue regarding newspaper journalism is that many people have lost their trust with the information contained in newspapers, as sometimes it proves to be inaccurate or exaggerated. Hence, some people have stopped reading or relying on the news altogether (Tottam, 1999). Despite the many problems or shortcomings with newspapers, newspapers do hold some advantage over other sources of information.

Application of Financial Statement Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Application of Financial Statement - Assignment Example Thus, in everyday life, the Income statement can be quickly and easily drawn up to show whether a person is generating positive income or a loss. If the person is incurring a loss, the income statement shows why this is so by providing a breakup of the expenses incurred. The individual can then know which expense is larger than the others and which expense can be easily controlled (Fridson & à lvarez, 2002). For instance, certain expenses such as house rent, fuel, heating and lighting of the house maybe unavoidable, but certain expenses such as food items may be controllable. The purpose of this statement in everyday life is to ensure better control over expenses and how to economize on these expenses in order to generate sufficient income. The concept of â€Å"sufficient† income again varies from individual to individual so there is no such concept of a perfect income or desirable income. However, the idea is to prevent individuals from going into a loss by allowing them be tter control over their expenses and inducing them to save rather than spend. In a business setting, the income statement simply draws a comparison between revenues and expenses, showing which is higher. The usefulness of an income statement for business managers is not limited to the numbers per se. Ratios calculated by using these numbers provide more useful information for decision making. The income statement, to this end, provides a quick assessment of the firm’s overall risk from operations, profitability and flexibility of its operations. For instance, the Return on Investment is calculated partially by using the income statement and partially by the balance sheet. The Gross and Net Income figure provided by Income Statement is used in a lot of other ratios, such as Gross Profit Margin, Net Profit Margin, Return on Assets, and Return on Equity etc. The Gross Profit Margin is simply found by dividing gross profit by sales, which indicates how much profit is earned per  dollar of sales, taking the cost of goods sold into account (Wild, 2006).  

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Compare and contrast the concept of reception developed in Essay

Compare and contrast the concept of reception developed in contemporary film studies with that of audience and reception - Essay Example But the most short fallen movies are the ones which have culturally specific backbone, as audiences of different location follow different customs and traditions and cannot just accept some other ways over their own. Isaac Newton states that every action has an equal but opposite reaction and this law holds good for many everyday life tasks, some customary and some exclusive ones (Sadler, 1996,p.49). The law of reaction applies to the film studies to a greater extent. Media research has transmuted over the decades into a compound of different researches going on simultaneously. Towards the end of the twentieth century it was largely practiced as plainly researching the media that was quite concordant to content analysis. However, contemporarily audience research has become an integrated part of the subject, and many people refer to it while relating to media research (cited in Glossary of research methods). One inference devised through the contemporary film studies is that, what is famous in one place would not necessarily be popular in other place, that is, the films which are adored at one corner of the world, may not ineluctably get the same appreciation elsewhere. For instance, a film like Speed was among the thirteen most affluent Hollywood movies in Hong Kong in the whole twentieth century that was actually the eight most successful movies in the U.S. in 1994. In contrast, the most popular movie in America in 1994 was Forrest Gump, which was not particularly popular after it traveled across to Asia (cited in untitled document). It is not hard to comprehend rather tempting to look at, that the movie audience around the globe was mesmerized to enjoy the thrills and excitement of Speed and other contemporary Hollywood blockbusters without it being mandatory for them to have some background knowledge or culturally specific insight of the matter! But about Forrest Gump, there were some keen-eyed people in

Tuesday, November 19, 2019

The Intranet Technology Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Intranet Technology - Case Study Example He focused on the four major points of IT responsibilities: Keeping these points in mind, Mr Goody gave me a comprehensive view on the various applications that were being currently used in the bank and the optimization methods required to develop the business functioning and achieve faster deadlines. The main application that Mr Goody explained needed improvement was the Intranet website that had to be made more efficient and user friendly. - Conventional format: The Intranet website of the bank, as I saw it, was just a lot of text information about the bank from the web developers. It looked very conventional with some introduction about the bank along with some highlights on the main page. The other web pages were organized department wise such as IT, Wholesale banking, Consumer Banking, Human Resource, Transaction Banking, CEO , all displaying their latest achievements, current affairs and future plans in their respective pages. - Distributed information: The information on the website was not properly centralized and composed, for e.g. Every department website had their training and elearning documents displayed on their respective pages but instead, these documents should have been organized under one banner "Training" or "E learning" so that it would be easier to access to any kind of training material. - Restricting User right: The web developer was only responsible for any website text addition, modification and deletion which had both its positive and negative aspects. Positively, the website would be safe and secure without allowing any user to add some malicious content that could compromise the intranet thus threatening the network. Negatively, the users cannot publish any of their informative and important documents, so which has to be done only through the web developer. But then a lot of times we need to make changes in our documents and due to the restricted rights, publishing those changes cannot be done time to time. - Unimpressive design: The feedback from the bank employees indicated that a lot of flashy images of the bank logo and improper navigation tools made the website quite unattractive and boring for the users to bother visiting. A company website can convey its Hamid, 3 message strongly if the website has organized information and more navigation bars which can allow the users to visit the website more frequently and participate in the bank online activities. Solution Proposed: Understanding the requirements of the bank's intranet needs, I knew that I had to propose a solution that can not only help in centralizing the information but also allow the employees to interact with each other on a common platform for business needs. Microsoft Share point server 2003 application is a reliable, scalable and easy to deploy platform, designed to organize the distributed data from various sources and provide a common portal for the users to interact and share tasks. Following are the main

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Motivation in Educational Institutes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Motivation in Educational Institutes - Essay Example And he who is versed in the science of numbers can tell of the regions of weight and measure, but he cannot conduct you thither. For the vision of one man lends not its wings to another man. And even as each one of you stands alone in God's knowledge, so must each one of you be alone in his knowledge of God and in his understanding of the earth. The profesion of teaching has had far more impact on development of a society than most people realise. After parents, the teacher is the most important person in the toddler's life. This interaction forms the foundation for the future life of the child, as to how he or she will contribute to the betterment of the society when he grows up to be an adult. With such an important role to play in lives of the future citizens of a nation, neither parents nor a country can afford to take chances. If a teacher is motivated, he or she can turn around the very lives of the children who come into their contact. This author has personal experiences with some such teachers, who actually turned life upside down in a short period of few years spent with them in a school. However, in today's context, thin budgets, materialistic lifestyles and big fat payscales available for other jobs have made teaching a last resort for most professions. In these circumstances, the teacher cannot be expected to stay motivated enough towards his students, and a good teacher is always an exception than rule. Under these circumstances, the administration has no choice but to evolve ways and means to increase motivation levels of teachers so that they can perform their jobs upto required levels of competencies without compromising the future of the the very students they are entrusted with. AIM This paper aims at bringing out some novel ways of improving motivation levels of teachers in modern educational institutions. BACKGROUND THEORIES Those who educate children well are more to be honored than parents, for these only gave life, those the art of living well. - Aristotle During past few decades, most governments and local schools have enacted some plans to recruit, reward, and retain the best teachers. Merit pay and career ladders were intended to provide financial incentives, varied work, and advancement opportunities for seasoned teachers. These, along with across-the-board pay raises, work environment premiums for difficult assignments, and grants or sabbaticals for research and study, were expected to improve teacher performance and motivation. Things did not move as expected and motivation levels of teachers continue to concern authorities even now. Additional aspects given due consideration were the historical contexts, factors affecting them internally and externally, and how new opportunities are devised for better motivation of teachers. - www.osba.org/lrelatns/teacherq/motivate.htm According to Johnson (1986), motivation aspects of teachers can be improved by three theories: Expectancy theory. Individuals are more likely to strive in their work if there is an anticipated reward that they value, such as a bonus or a promotion, than if there is none. It is true that monetary compensation is still the most important motivator in the present times. Teachers also belong to the same society as any other professional; have same dreams about lifestyles and the life they want to

Context - historical, cultural or social Essay Example for Free

Context historical, cultural or social Essay The level of efficiency of a literary work does not depend solely on the story, but also on the context of that specific stories. Some stories are only powerful when they are set in a specific context, otherwise they would reach the effect that was wanted. This is exactly the case with Woman at Point Zero by Nawal El Sadaawi, and The Crucible by Arthur Miller. The Crucible is set in a historical time different then that of the author and the reader. In the 17th century people thought in different manners, and believed in different things, in this case witchcraft. If the work wasnt set in this context it could not have been so effective since because witch trials are no longer present, and the whole story would be meaningless. Culturally it is important what people think, what and who people believe in. In the culture of Salem all the citizens were highly religious, and questioned everything not related to religion and beliefs. This is why they believed the girls when they were saying that the good spirits in their souls can detect the evil ones in other people, and never thought, even for a second, to question them. In a social sense this society was ideal, and perfect for the story. Their beliefs and their actions helped the development of the witch trials. In a smaller society the news of witch hunt would not have had been so important for other larger cities, then it was in the case of Salem. Albeit Woman at Point Zero is set in the same time period as the reader is, historically it recalls earlier version of European society, when women were ruled by men, as it is in the Arabian society in the present. This means that although it is hard to understand for someone living in a European society, if it was set in this society and the reappearance of an old historical period. The Egyptian culture is different then almost every outside of the Arab area, but it is necessary to make this work meaningful and powerful. It is clearly started from the beginning of the text that the men are always in charge, and never let the women make their own decisions. This only makes sense in a culture where it is the norm. In other areas it would be meaningless, which is why culture is extremely important. In conclusion it can be seen that story is not the only thing that make a work enjoyable and understandable, but also its context. Without them the whole book would become meaningless and no one would be able to make sense of it.

Friday, November 15, 2019

The role and portrayal of Women in the media

The role and portrayal of Women in the media Introduction Media is considered as a traditionally male job and generally it is thought that women journalists can not skip the glass ceiling phenomenon. Pakistan is another minefield of challenges for journalists, especially female journalists. The problem prevails mostly in electronic media scenario as women are making more appearances on screen with the boom of private TV channels. They are considered less prominent. Female journalists working in developed countries are also facing such problems but Pakistani female journalists are in the initial stages towards progress. In Pakistan, with the advent of increasing number of private TV channels, female journalists quite often appear on our television screens. Anchor women, foreign correspondents, and special correspondents are omnipresent in the main broadcast news shows and in current affairs programs. They are considered beautiful and successful women, as well as trend-setters with respect to clothes, make-up and hairstyles. Print journalism, where the physical image is replaced by the reporters name, this phenomenon is much less prominent than electronic media. In spite of the large entrance of female personnel into the professional work of information, women on top of editorial staff are still a scanty minority: this is, however, no different to Western countries. Thanks to television, female journalists have acquired great visibility. Recently The International Womens Media Foundation announced that Rabia Mehmood, a journalist in the Lahore bureau of Express 24/7 Television in Pakistan, has received its 2010-11 Elizabeth Neuffer Fellowship. Mehmood is the sixth recipient of the annual fellowship, which gives a woman journalist working in print, broadcast or online media the opportunity to focus exclusively on human rights journalism and social justice issues. Throughout her career, Mehmood has reported on topics such as womens rights, freedom of speech and political unrest. She has covered the survivors and victims of terrorist attacks, suicide bombings and hostage sieges carried out by militants in Lahore. Mehmood has also reported on internally displaced people who left Northwest Pakistan as a result of insurgency by terrorists and military offensives. But this is not the case of every female journalist. Most of them are assigned to cover social, cultural, soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. With the evolution of time and in order to follow the west, Pakistani media is giving important posts to female journalists but in fact the power still lies in the hands of dominant males. Editorial Boards mostly consist of male members. Gender discrimination in journalism is very distinct and they are given the same benefits as to their male colleagues. Some of the most prominent women working in Pakistani electronic media are Aasma Chuhdry Dr Ayesha Siddiqa Katrina Hussain Bushra Rehman, Najia Ashar Naseem Zehra Saadia Afzaal Sheren Mazari Asma Sherazi Zahida Hina Sana Bucha Sumaira Nadeem Sana Mirza Ayesha Baksh And many more Theoretical Framework Gender Role Theory: Gender role theory posits that boys and girls learn the appropriate behavior and attitudes from the family and overall culture they grow up with, and so non-physical gender differences are a product of socialization. Social role theory proposes that the social structure is the underlying force for the gender differences. Social role theory proposes that the sex-differentiated behavior is driven by the division of labor between two sexes within a society. Division of labor creates gender roles, which in turn, lead to gendered social behavior. The physical specialization of the sexes is considered to be the distal cause of the gender roles. Mens unique physical advantages in term of body size and upper body strength provided them an edge over women in those social activities that demanded such physical attributes such as hunting, herding and warfare. On the other hand, womens biological capacity for reproduction and child-rearing is proposed to explain their limited involvement in other social activities. Such divided activity arrangement for the purpose of achieving activity-efficiency led to the division of labor between sexes. Social role theorists have explicitly stressed that the labor division is not narrowly defined as that between paid employment and domestic activities, rather, is conceptualized to include all activities performed within a society that are necessary for its existence and sustainability. The characteristics of the activities performed by men and women became peoples perceptions and beliefs of the d ispositional attributes of men or women themselves. Through the process of correspondent inference, division of labor led to gender roles, or gender stereotype. Ultimately, people expect men and women who occupy certain position to behave according to these attributes. These socially constructed gender roles is considered to be hierarchical and characterized as a male-advantaged gender hierarchy. The activities men involved in were often those that provided them with more access to or control of resources and decision making power, rendering men not only superior dispositional attributes via correspondence bias (Gilbert, 1998, p.**), but also higher status and authority as society progressed. The particular pattern of the labor division within a certain society is a dynamic process and determined by its specific economical and cultural characteristics. For instance, in an industrial economy, the emphasis on physical strength in social activities becomes less compared with that in a less advanced economy. In a low birth rate society, women will be less confined to reproductive activities and thus more likely to be involved in a wide range of social activities. The beliefs that people hold about the sexes are derived from observations of the role per formances of men and women and thus reflect the sexual division of labor and gender hierarchy of the society. The consequences of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior because roles and stereotypes are both socially shared descriptive norms and prescriptive norms. Gender roles provide guides to normative behaviors that are typical, ought-to-be and thus likely effective for each sex within certain social context. Gender roles also depict ideal, should-be, and thus desirable behaviors for men and women who are occupying a particular position or involving in certain social activities. Put is another way, men and women, as social beings, strive to belong and seek for approval by complying and conforming to the social and cultural norms within their society. The conformity to social norms not only shapes the pattern, but also maintains the very existence of sex-typed social behavior. In summary, social role theory treats these differing distributions of women and men into roles as the primary origin of sex-differentiated social behavior, their impact on behavior is mediated by psychological and social processes including developmental and socialization processes, as well as by processes involved in social interaction (e.g., expectancy confirmation) and self-regulation Social Construction of Gender Difference This perspective proposes that gender difference is socially constructed. This perspective believes that gender is socially constructed. Social constructionism of gender moves away from socialization as the origin of gender differences; people do not merely internalize gender roles as they grow up but they respond to changing norms in society. Children learn to categorize themselves by gender very early on in life. A part of this is learning how to display and perform gendered identities as masculine or feminine. Boys learn to manipulate their physical and social environment through physical strength or other skills, while girls learn to present themselves as objects to be viewed. Children monitor their own and others gendered behavior. Gender-segregated childrens activities create the appearance that gender differences in behavior reflect an essential nature of male and female behavior. Judith Bulter contends that being female is not natural and that it appears natural only through repeated performances of gender; these performances in turn, reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. A social constructionist view looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of multiple identities, the blurring of the boundaries of essentialist categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and female that are typically viewed by others as binary and opposites of each other. By deconstructing categories of gender, the value placed on masculine traits and behaviors disappears. However, the elimination of categories makes it difficult to make any comparisons between the genders or to argue and fight against male domination. Feminism, masculinism and religious views Some feminists see gender differences as caused by patriarchy or discrimination, although difference feminism argues for an acceptance of gender differences. Conservative masculists tend to see gender differences as inherent in human nature, while liberal masculists see gender differences as caused by matriarchy and discrimination. History of the struggle of female journalists: Since the 1960s, feminists have argued that it matters who makes it. When it comes to the mass media, who makes it continues to be men. Women working in the media have made some inroads. In 2001, the International Federation of Journalists reported that around the world, 38 per cent of all working journalists are women. Studies conducted by Canadian researchers Gertrude Robinson and Armande Saint-Jean have found that 28 per cent of newspaper editors are female. And according to San Diego State University communications professor Martha Lauzen, 24 per cent of American television producers, writers, and directors are women. Denis Monià ¨re, political analyst and professor at Quebecs University of Montreal maintains that even if the visibility of female journalists has grown in the last ten years, we shouldnt be too quick to shout victory. In 2002, the Canadian Newspaper Association reported that 43 per cent of Canadian newspaper employees are women. However, they account for only eight per cent of editors-in-chief and twelve per cent of publishers. Women employed in the sector tend to work in pink-collar ghettos; they make up 70 per cent of the advertising department, and 80 per cent of the accounting and finance staff. In addition to being un-represented in positions of authority, Monià ¨re thinks women are also under-utilized in covering the subjects considered most important-politics, economy and social trends. And when it comes to the evening news, women are almost invisible. The posting of Sophie Thibault in 2002 as the ten oclock news anchor for the national French-language channel TVA is a first for Canada. Most often, women are consigned to noon-hour shows, local newscasts, fill-ins and weekend spots. However, men continue to occupy approximately 75 per cent of the positions of power in the mass media. The 2001 study conducted by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania is equally damning. The Center reports that only 13 per cent of the top executives of American media, telecommunications and e-companies are female. And that 13 per cent is not concentrated at the top: women constitute only 9 per cent of the boards of directors for these companies, and they hold only 3 per cent of the most powerful positions. CURRENT SITUATION: Women in Islamic nations are increasingly being heard, seen and listened to, thanks in part to leading female voices determined to make a difference, despite challenges ranging from motherhood to threats on their lives. One of the hostesses of a popular Saudi program called Speaking Softly says that until recently, she did not see people like herself on television. Muna Abusulayman is one of four anchorwomen on the show that deals with various issues in a talk format. Of the four, Abusulayman is the only one who wears a hijab, or headscarf. She is also divorced and lives alone with her child in Saudi Arabia. Women in the Middle East actually make up the majority of anchors and presenters on television. But, Abusulayman says, they are much less prominent behind the scenes and in other media like print and radio. Tasneem Ahmar, who runs a media and advocacy group in Pakistan as well as producing radio programs on womens issues, agrees with Abusulayman. With more than 25 years experience as a journalist, Ahmar says that, not unlike the West, most decision-making jobs, top executive positions, and tough assignments are given to men. Women normally are assigned very soft issues social issues, cultural issues, she said. There are very few women, youll find, who are doing hard political stories or economic stories or current affairs programs. Tasneem Ahmar thinks positive changes for women in the Middle East and the Islamic world are on the horizon. She predicts that a new wave of young women in the Pakistani media will have an impact in five to ten years in her country. These young girls who have come in, theyre very ambitious and theyre very hard working and I dont think anything is going to stop them from going to the top positions. While there is still a lot of work to be done, the women hope that their efforts and successes in the media will inspire not only women but men too. Or maybe there is truth to the old adage, the best man for the job is a woman. One woman in the Middle East who does cover tough stories and speaks out is May Chidiac. She is the host of a Lebanese TV program called With Audacity. Chidiac is known all over the Arab world for her tenacious journalism. A victim of an assassination attempt by suspected Syrian agents, she lost a hand and a leg in a car bombing in September 2005. After numerous surgeries, she went straight back to work. Reporter of an English Newspaper from Dhaka says that in most cases, chief reporters/assignment editors (almost everyone are male) do not assign them something special/important or significant reports. They are still assigned soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. But the interesting point is that, many female journalists in our country now protesting this kind of attitudes and they are getting serious kind of assignment after fighting with their bosses. In Bangladesh, this is a very new phenomenon to appoint female journalists in electronic media, However, critics pointed that as female is more attractive then male in electronic media, so the media owners appoints the female journalists to attract audiences. About 15 percent female journalists are now working in countrys 11 state and privately run TV channels. On the other hand, in print media, we are very few female reporters are which any working journalist can count within 10 minutes. There are some other sectors of the media where female are more visible then reporting like hazardous and glamorous job for unknown reasons. Anam Istafa, Sub editor, National Herald Tribune openly admits that female journalists are usually assumed to be dumb and so tender hearted for Hard news coverage especially of blasts and natural disasters. She says that very rare females are at the executive positions in media news media business. Most of them usually follow guideline and policies by their male bosses. Policy and decision makers are predominantly men. Despite the increase of womens visibility in media organizations, journalists in South Asia are hardly seen in the decision-making positions. This was one of the several issues highlighted by more than 200 women working in the media from every SAARC country, who came together for the first time in Lahore, Pakistan, for a two-day meeting on Women in Media Challenges, Opportunities and Partnership. Women media persons from Maldives, Bhutan and Nepal pointed out that none of the print media in their country has ever had a female journalist heading the newsroom. Participants from India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka raised similar concerns, and also pointed out that man in their media organizations outnumbered women. Most of the participants cited long and difficult working hours, lack of incentives and appreciation to keep women working in the media, fulfilling household obligations and unequal wages as some of the reasons why women in the media are under-represented at various levels in South Asia. These were also some of the reasons why most female media persons, after working for few years, leave the profession for other jobs. Portrayal of women in the media as victims was also discussed extensively. Some of the participants pointed out that women make news in several South Asian news media only when they are victims of conflict, crime, natural disasters or terrorism. However, one of the guest speakers, Pakistans federal information minister, Qamar Zaman Kaira, said: Women journalists play an important role in voicing concerns of the victims in conflict areas, who are often women and children. Some of these victims are more comfortable sharing their experiences with female professionals. He urged women media persons to also take up more serious and hard-hitting issues relating to politics, security and conflict. Senior journalist in Pakistan, Shehar Bano, said at the conference that international research studies indicate transformation in news content brought on by an influx of women into the news media. Issues such as health, education, child care and women workers have gained prominent slots in newspapers, she said. Bandana Rana from Nepal said, however, that there are also many female media persons, who are confined to covering only feature articles on art, culture and lifestyle and very few female reporters are assigned business, economics or political stories. It was resolved during the meeting that female media persons should be given training opportunities to enhance their skills to cover all issues, along with mentorship programmes between senior and junior female journalists. Former Chairperson, Department of Mass Communications at University of Karachi, Professor Shahida Qazi said she is happy that more and more Pakistani women are now joining media. She recalled when in 1966 she had joined Daily Dawn Karachi as a reporter, many people were surprised. She said now more than 70 percent of Karachi University students are women. She said in the Department of Mass Communications, there are more female students than males. Former Secretary Information Department, and TV compere Mehtab Akbar Rashdi said declaration of the state of emergency and curbs on media in Pakistan have shocked journalists, writers and human right activists. She said the dream of gender justice and equality could not materialize until change of mindset in male population. She said even today in the practical field female journalists face many problems due to this dogmatic thinking. Rashdi said steps for empowerment of women should be taken from the home. She said parents should encourage their daughters to get higher education and work in every walk of life. Electronic media in Pakistan is highlighting gender-related issues in a better way in comparison to print media, because more women journalists work in TV channels. Pakistani women have entered the field of journalism after a tough competition. Now women journalists and photographers could be seen working in Pakistani society and it is a welcome change. Association of Television Journalists (ATJ) only has some 50 females among its 700 or so members around the country, but nearly half of them are concentrated in the business capital of Karachi. Women are highly visible in the Pakistani media as anchors and talk show hosts on dozens of private radio and television channels in various regional languages, besides English and Urdu. Women are paid less than their male colleagues for equal work and have to fight harder for the political or other high profile assignments Most identify sexual harassment as their biggest concern, according to Zebunnisa Burki, who has been coordinating South Asian Women in Media (SAWM) EFFORTS /STEPS TAKEN TO PROMOTE ROLE OF WOMEN IN MEDIA Gender Equality Beyond 2005: Building a more secure future for women reporters To mark International Womens Day on 8 March 2005, UNESCOs Director-General, KoÃÆ' ¯chiro Matsuura, launched for the fourth time the global initiative Women Make the News. UNESCO appeals to all media producing daily news to hand over editorial responsibility to women to cast the news on that day. UNESCO Supports Gender in Journalism Awards in Pakistan The Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) organizes the Gender in Journalism Awards to honour excellence in gender sensitive reporting in the country. UNESCO supports the two awards, each carrying a cash prize of Rs 25,000 (US$ 400), that will be given to Pakistani journalists. One award recognizes models for excellence and best practices in coverage of gender related issues. It is open to both male and female journalists. The second award honours outstanding coverage of any issue by a female journalist. Its aim is to promote role models for women entering or planning to enter the journalism field. Journalists working in print media may nominate their own work, or editors and others may nominate articles that promote the objectives of the awards. Fiji Women Community Radio Initiative femLINKpacific (Media Initiatives for Women), a womens media NGO, launched in 2004 femTALK 89.2FM, a mobile womens community radio project. In January 2005, as a result of the grant of UNESCOs Intergovernmental Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), the femLINKpacific is taking the suitcase radio to women in their communities. The aim of the femTALK 89,2FM project is to not only create a new space on the radio waves for community based discussion, but also to provide practical opportunities for women within their own communities to highlight and address issues relevant to them. The main focus of femLINKpacifics range of community media initiatives is women speaking to women for peace. The decision making structures still lack equal representation by women and the capacity of women, especially from the rural population and the poor, to communicate openly on common matters should be increased. International Womens Media Foundation Since its founding in 1990, the International Womens Media Foundation has conducted training programs on five continents, in 26 countries and over the Internet with the goal of strengthening the role of women in the news media worldwide. The IWMF supports women in the media through groundbreaking projects, and innovative research and training designed to help women develop their skills and become leaders in their profession. Since 1990, the IWMF has honored more than 50 extraordinarily brave and hardworking journalists with Courage in Journalism Awards. The only international awards designed to recognize the contributions of women on journalisms front lines, the Courage awards recognize women who have faced physical attacks, prison terms, beatings, rape, and death threats to themselves and their families. Training Women Media Professionals Internews is one of the worlds leading trainers of female media professionals, training more than 25,000 women in media skills since 2003 alone. Internews helps women get on the air and in the newsrooms in societies where their participation has been marginalized, allowing for reporting on all issues-not just womens issues-to be done through the voices of women in that society. Mainstreaming Womens Issues To ensure that the media meet the needs of all audiences, Internews works to foster womens leadership in the media industry so that issues of vital concern to women are mainstreamed, integrated across all programming and not relegated to a niche market. In communities where specific gender issues are underreported, such as gender-based violence or womens health, Internews has developed special programs produced by and for women. Pakistans First Radio Program by and for Women In Pakistan, where only three percent of journalists are women, Internews has worked to increase the number of women working in media, training women at journalism programs established by Internews at universities from Peshawar to Rawalpindi to Balochistan. Internews launched Meri Awaz Suno (Hear My Voice), the countrys first independent syndicated program that features women as both producers and subjects. In 2003, Internews built a state-of-theart independent radio production facility in Islamabad where women journalists are trained in radio reporting and production and work on Meri Awaz Suno. The radio show airs on 19 independent radio stations across the country, and focuses on issues such as politics, education and health. Before Internews training, most reporters working on Meri Awaz Suno had little experience working in radio or journalism. Now they are leaders the first women in Pakistan to work as independent broadcast journalists, and role models for young women. Establishment of Forum Named :Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) The women journalists of twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad formally announced Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) forum to address professional problems faced by them and find out ways to nurture their skills. The ceremony was organized at the National Press Club, Islamabad in which Javed Akhtar, Director News Associated Press of Pakistan, Absar Alam, Anchor person Aaj TV, Qatrina Hussain, Anchor person Express TV and Fozia Shahid Anchor Person ATV shared their through provoking ideas and views with a large number of female journalists present there. According to WJP members, the body is a non-political and intellectual-based forum that aims to provide platform to working women journalists in the print and electronic media. In addition to raising a collective voice on issues faced by women journalists, the forum will initially focus on two basic aspects networking and facilitating journalists avail media-related career-building opportunities. The WJP hierarchy is: Myra Imran of The News (Convener); Saadia Khalid, The News and Humaira Sharif of APP (Resource persons). Working Group: Ayesha Habib (Dunya TV); Sehrish Majid (Apna TV), Anila Bashir- (Samaa), Asma Ghani (The Nation), Maimoona (Khabrain), Siddrah Bokhari (APP), Naheed Akhtar (APP), Shumaila Noreen (APP), Zahida Mahmood (APP), Ghazala Noreen (News-One TV), Saadia Masood (Rohi TV), Nazia Hameed (Channel 5), Afshan Qureshi (Ausaf), Rukhsana Mussarat (Radio Pakistan), Shazia Seher (Apna TV). The WJP Advisory Board comprises the following: Qatrina Hussain (Anchorperson, Express TV); Absar Alam (Anchorperson Aaj TV); Ghazi Salahuddin (Member Editorial Board, Jang Group of Newspapers); Javed Akhtar (Director News, APP); Muhammad Ziauddin (Executive Editor, The Express Tribune); Shamsul Islam Naz (Secretary General, Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists); Asma Shirazi (Anchorperson Samaa TV); Mazhar Arif (Executive Director, Alternate Media) and Fozia Shahid (ATV). Establishment of Aasha (the Alliance Against Sexual Harrasment) and a code of conduct for workplace WWO is among the civil society organisations which got together a few years ago to form Aasha, the Alliance Against Sexual Harassment (www.aasha.org.pk) in collaboration with the International Labor Organisation (ILO) and Pakistans Ministry of Women Development. Aasha developed a code of conduct for the workplace and a procedure to deal with harassment and discrimination. Geo TV, the largest private television network in Pakistan is among the few media organisations Aasha lists as a progressive employer. Its not necessary for every case to be a federal issue, commented a television producer who worked with Geo when Aasha started. Often the tension arises because of the widespread gender segregation in our society many of these youngsters dont know how to interact with each other. This leads to misunderstandings that the code helps to clear up. Another reason for growing sexual harassment may be that, with education, more people are crossing class barriers. Women coming into journalism earlier were relatively well-connected and self-confident. Many now come from lower-middle class backgrounds and have less confidence. Men find it easier to take advantage of or intimidate them, observed a senior journalist. Problems Faced by Female Journalists (Pakistan) It is an established fact that women are an integral part of the Pakistani media. Professionally, they match their male colleagues and their analytical and investigative skills are quite impressive. With their distinctive approach to political, economic and social issues, women journalists have successfully highlighted the human angle that had previously remained neglected. They have proven themselves, both in the print and the electronic media. Less than a decade ago, there were very few women in journalism. But things have now changed and with the opening of a string of television channels, many new faces have joined in. These motivated girls have been a valuable addition to the Pakistani media. Viewers, readers and listeners, have all appreciated their work. However, unfortunately the working conditions in the media houses have remained unchanged. Low salaries, downsizing, lack of professionalism, non-existence of basic facilities for employees like health, old age benefits etc, no job security and non-conducive work environment in majority of media organizations especially in the Urdu print media are indeed big hurdles. This has greatly affected women journalists because they are often the first ones to become victims of downsizing. Mainly due to social pressures, they cannot work in two or three places like their male colleagues and unlike their male colleagues women are reluctant to seek favors. The constraints they face due to overall environment in media industry become a hurdle in their way to assume journalism as a career but another dimension of this issue is the problems female journalists face within their community the biggest is their continuing struggle to become registered journalists within media bodies. Unfortunately, majority of the women journalists have only been granted associate membership which is actually not regular membership. The condition is worst in under developed areas where women, in most of cases, dont apply for membership. This apparently small problem has long lasting effect on the overall situation of female journalists and their growth in media industry. Due to non-registratio

Thursday, November 14, 2019

Sight in Cathedral Essays -- Literary Review

Vision is something many people take for granted every day. Society only deals with the matter of being blind if they are the less fortunate ones. According to the Braille Institute, "every seven minutes a person in the United States loses their sight, often as part of the aging process" (1). Only two percent of legally blind people use a guide dog and thirty-five percent use a white cane. Blindness can be caused from various different types of things including (in order) age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy and age-related cataracts. (Braille 1). However being blind does not mean a person is in total darkness. Some people can see lights and the shapes of objects, but the most import thing is for family and friends to provide hope and encouragement. The last thing a person who has lost their sight wants is to lose their family and support, which will led to loneliness. Likewise, in the short story "Cathedral," by Raymond Carver's, blindness is the key elem ent in the story and shows in detail how the characters manage it. The theme Carver conveys in the short story is being able to see without sight and is revealed through the characters, tone and plot of the story. The theme in the story of being able to see without sight is revealed through the characters in the story "Cathedral." The husband is very judgmental, self-centered and shows a lack of knowledge about blind people. This is obvious when he states, "My idea of blindness came from the movies. In the movies, the blind move slowly and never laugh (1152). The husband is so quick to judge and thinks he already knows everything about blind people and how they are, so he makes it clear he was not looking forward to the blind man being in his house ... ...d the blind experience and it was like Robert was no longer the blind person in the house (Caldwell 3). As a result, this shows him the way to gaining a better understanding of his own self worth and heal from pass hurts by experiencing the transcendent of nature of life. Works Cited Akers, Tim. "Overview: 'Cathedral'." Short Stories for Students 6 (1999): 1-2. Literature Resource Center. Web. 16 Nov. 2010. Braille Institute: Empowering visually impaired people to live fulfilling lives. Braille Institute. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010 Caldwell, Tracey. "Raymond Carver's 'Cathedral'." Literary Contents in Short Stories (2006): 1-8. Literary Reference Center. Web. 5 Nov. 2010 Carver, Raymond. Cathedral. Exploring Literature: Writing and Arguing About Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and the Essay. Ed. Frank Madden. 4th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2009. 1151-61. Print

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

Be Careful :: essays research papers

Liz looked at Sarah, regretting she had come along with them in the first place. â€Å"Relax, Liz.† she said. â€Å"I really shouldn’t be here, Sarah. Can’t I go home?† Liz said. John smiled. â€Å"He’s not gonna bite. He’s really nice. You know he is, he’s been at your place a billion times.† He said. Liz nodded, but looked pleadingly at Sarah. â€Å"We’ll be right back. Hold him here when he arrives.† Sarah said and John nodded. â€Å"Can do!† he said, and she smiled at him as she grabbed Liz’ arm and dragged her along into the toilets. â€Å"You are not going home.† Sarah said, turning to look at her. â€Å"But... I don’t belong here. Me and love... we’re incomparable.† Liz said. Sarah smiled at her. â€Å"You are not!† she said. Liz sighed and turned to the mirror to make sure the bruise wasn’t showing. She bit her lip, and Sarah placed her hand on her sh oulder. â€Å"Lizzy...† she said softly, and Liz turned to her with teary eyes. â€Å"Sorry.† She said quietly and smiled a little. Sarah smiled back as she hugged her. â€Å"Don’t be.† She said. â€Å"It wasn’t your fault. Besides, he was an idiot and you were far too good for him anyway.† Liz laughed a little and looked at her. â€Å"Yeah?† she said. â€Å"Yeah.† Sarah said smiling. â€Å"Now, will you stay? John is right, you know. Mark is really nice, and John should know. You know he is too. They’ve been best mates for ages. They moved here together like you and me.† Sarah said. â€Å"Really?† Liz asked. Sarah nodded. â€Å"Yeah. And you wanna know a little secret?† she asked. â€Å"Go on.† Liz said smiling. â€Å"He told John that he thinks you’re really nice.† Sarah said and grinned when Liz blushed. â€Å"He did not!† Liz said. â€Å"Did too! Will you stay?† she asked. Liz shrugged. â€Å"It’s just a movie, then we can go home ... with company.† Sarah said. â€Å"And it’s not like you’ll be alone. John and I are here.† Liz nodded. â€Å"All right.† She said. â€Å"I’ll stay.† Sarah cheered. â€Å"Yay!† she said, making Liz laugh. â€Å"Come on, bet they’re waiting.† They walked back out, finding Mark had showed up and he and John were stood talking when they walked over. â€Å"Hey babe. You okay?† John said, placing his arms around Sarah. â€Å"Hello. Yeah, fine. Hi Mark.† She said. Mark smiled at her.

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Craddock Cup Essay

Background: The Craddock Cup is a regional soccer tournament held by the Craddock Youth Soccer League (CYSL) and managed by Joe Rivaldo every year. The cup brings in around 32 premier high school soccer teams (both boys and girls teams) from throughout the region to compete. Each year the cup is considered a great success by players, their families and the local community and is now widely considered as the premier tournament for high school soccer players. Over the past few years the cup has developed into a showcase event for high school soccer players and has been able to attract the region’s best teams due to the fact that on average 25 college scouts attend the cup each year for recruiting purposes. Main Issue or Problem: The main problem is that of the Craddock Cup being cancelled and Jose Rivaldo the manger of CYSL losing his job. This is due to the issue that, CYSL who fund the Craddock Cup, do so in part to fund a field acquisition program for the league with the expectation the cup will generate at least $6,000 annually towards this goal. However the cups profits are averaging a loss of around $4,000 a year and the board of CYSL is becoming impatient with the lack of profits being generated. Therefore Joe needs to find a solution to increase the cups profitability and by doing so save his job. Three Possible Mutually Exclusive Alternatives that Might be used to Solve the Problem (these must not include the status quo (current practice) and should include at least one alternative that is not mentioned in the case): Alternative| Quantitative Techniques to Use + Reason| Qualitative Issues to Discuss + Reason| Suggested reading (pages) in HDR (2012)| 1. Make changes to the overhead expenses allocated to the tournament including salaries, rent, utilities and field rental.| Relevant cost and relevant revenue analysis. If the cup was to be cancelled then CYSL would still incur the sunk costs of rent, utilities, field rental and Rivaldo’s salary meaning they should not be allocated to the cup. However the cost of Jansten’s salary would be saved if the cup was cancelled.| If the cup was to be cancelled then it would result in the loss of Jansten’s job as his/her employment is solely related to the cup. This could affect the moral of fellow employees.| 415-416, 430-434| 2. Organize a deal with a hotel/s where you arrange accommodation for all the players. In return for the extra business the hotel/s offer you free or discounted accommodation for the college scouts. | Breakeven analysis and contribution margin. If the variable cost of putting the college scouts in hotels (which is a large cost of $4,000) could be eliminated or reduced significantly it would greatly affect the contribution margin of the cup (CM = Sales – VC) as variable costs would decrease significantly. It would also decrease the breakeven point in revenue. | Issues could include the problem of finding a hotel or hotels that will be able to provide enough accommodation for the large amount of players and that will agree to the proposal as the hotel or hotels may feel they will be able to attract the players on their own accord and do not need to avoid losing the additional profit of the scouts by doing so. | 86-88, 90-91, 94| 3. Increase the tournament size from 32 teams to 64 teams. | Incremental profit and costs. If the cup was to increase its size to 64 teams it would bring in additional revenue from the new teams registration fees. Other revenue would also likely increase. While most expenses such as registration fees, face books, hotels and marketing would remain the same as the scouts are only looking for high school players, where the new teams introduced would be from middle schools.| Issues include finding enough teams to be able to expand the tournament along with making sure the suppliers of things such as t-shirts and food can provide enough goods to match the extra demand. Also whether or not the staff can cope with the increased work load or whether another employee will need to be hired.| 421, 579-80, 584-86|

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Overworked and Underpaid: The Life of a Servant Essay

$2. 85 cannot even buy one gallon of regular gas, who could imagine that that is my hourly wage. Waitresses and housekeepers are stereotypically female roles, however, people are unaware of what’s behind the smile. My jobs as a housekeeper and waitress are both tough because of the lack of pay, customer service, and dirtiness. Some jobs really don’t get the amount of pay they deserve; both housekeeping and serving would fall into this category. In Wisconsin, minimum wage of a server is less than half of standard minimum wage. Not all people are bad tippers, but it’s hard not to get discouraged when you’re making mediocre money and receiving, at best, a forty to sixty dollar paycheck every two weeks. After a slow night, a party of ten walked in just minutes before the kitchen closed. Needing money for school, I took the group, not knowing how demanding they would be. After waiting on them hand and foot, bending over backwards to give them great service, their bill amounted to over two hundred thirty dollars. As I collected their bill, they informed me of how great of an experience they had and how well of a job I had done. Upon counting the money, I found that they had left me a measly twenty five dollars for all of the effort I put in. When you go out with a bigger group to a restaurant, naturally you tip twenty percent because of the extra work it takes to wait on you. I don’t find this a problem considering the minimum amount to tip a waitress is fifteen percent, according to sources. Housekeepers, however, work at a higher pay, but not much above the minimum wage, which isn’t nearly enough compensation, considering what they have to deal with. Unlike waitressing, housekeeping requires longer hours, and more strenuous work. On average, I had ten to fifteen rooms a shift, and on top of that, at least two large loads of linens to fold. Upon receiving my paychecks, I was always disappointed at the small amount left over after taxes and other deductions. There was one instance, however, that I found twenty dollars in an empty room. Underneath it was a note saying, â€Å"Thank you! † Even though this was a rare occurrence, it was always nice knowing the recognition some of the tenants gave us for our hard work. But how much is enough? This leads me to customer service, which is a privilege, not a right. Smile and bring the customers whatever they need† the general advice given from many business owners in the service industry. This is much easier said than done. Ninety-nine percent of the people I wait on are pleasant, but there have been a handful of incidents where I had to bite my tongue in order to refrain from yelling, or even worse, quitting. A common misconception from unsatisfied restaurant customers is that the server prepares the food—our sole job is to submit a ticket to the kitchen staff what food you need so it can be served in a timely manner. I waitress at a bar and grill right on Main Street in my hometown. It receives more business from local and non-local patrons than other restaurants in the area. In reality, our kitchen is not nearly big enough to keep up with our outside patio and inside tables in the summer. There was an instance this summer during Friday night fish fry where we were completely slammed. Upon greeting my customers, I informed them there would be a wait on pizzas—seeing as that was a hot commodity for the evening. That table decided that they would wait, ordered a pizza, and wait they did. They continuously asked when their food was out during the course of their visit and grew more and more mad the more they asked. I was able to get out the food right before they almost left without even eating, they were rude to me the whole time, only because of how long the food took. Not recognizing that this was not at all my fault, they decided that it would be appropriate to not even leave me a dime on their seventy-five dollar bill. I was astonished at how inconsiderate and rude some people could be when the time of the service of the food had nothing to do with me. On the other hand, customer service can be very rewarding as well. When I house kept, I had the pleasure of making someone’s whole day by giving them a clean space to reside in. One time a toddler requested a toothbrush because he forgot his. Upon returning with his toothbrush he was so polite and just made my whole day. More times than not, customer service can be rewarding, but there’s always a little dirtiness in every job. If you thought dirty described your household or the dishes in your kitchen sink, you have no idea unless you’ve worked in a restaurant or in housekeeping. As a server, you handle hundreds of peoples’ dishes, and even more disgusting silverware, but that’s not even the tip of the iceberg; there are many other dirty situations you encounter while on the job. Over this past Labor Day weekend, in the midst of a dinner rush, a patron of the restaurant, had a little too much to drink and couldn’t get his dinner of brandy manhattans to the garbage or nearby bathroom, but instead all over my shoes. This is not the first or last time I will clean up vomit, I’m sure of it. As a housekeeper, you get a glimpse of how people live. Unfortunately, it’s the side behind closed doors that’s not such a privilege to see. I could write a book about all of the disgusting things I saw in these absolutely disastrous rooms. One weekend there was a wedding party in town, and man did they like to party. I walked into the room and the linens were the least of my worries, I had to pick used condoms off the bed and vomit from the floor. Disgusted beyond belief I was, and that feeling doesn’t include the numerous amounts of clogged toilets I had to clean†¦I don’t tend to do well with feces. This demonstrates a few different examples of why workers in these lines are underpaid, underappreciated, and unsanitary (at times). Sometimes, I really wonder if the small amount of pay, tears and stress from undeserving customers, and risk of disease (need I remind you of the condoms) is all worth it. However, then I remember that I could be unemployed and realize that I would definitely rather work. So if you’ve learned anything after reading this paper, remember to tip your service workers well, they usually always deserve it.

How the Media Affect What People Essay

The standard assertion in most recent empirical studies is that â€Å"media affect what people think about, not what they think. † The findings here indicate the media make a significant contribution to what people think—to their political preferences and evaluations—precisely by affecting what they think about. A he belief that long dominated the scholarly community is that news messages have â€Å"minimal consequences† (Katz and Lazarsfeld, 1955; Klapper, 1960). Many media scholars still endorse something close to this view (cf. McGuire, 1985; Gans, n. d. ; Neuman, 1986; also M. Robinson and Sheehan, 1983). The more popular recent view is that media influence is significant, but only in shaping the problems the public considers most important—their agendas (McCombs and Shaw, 1972). In some respects, agenda research challenges the minimal consequences view, but both approaches share a core assumption. Both assume audiences enjoy substantial autonomy in developing their political preferences. Research contradicting the notion that media have minimal consequences or only influence agendas has emerged during the 1980s (see, e. g. the pioneering yet disparate work of such authors as Bartels, 1985; Patterson, 1980; Iyengar and Kinder, 1987; and Page, Shapiro, and Dempsey, 1987; cf. Rob- The author gratefully acknowledgesfinancialsupport from the John and Mary R. Markle Foundation and the Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin, and thanks this journal’s referees and editors for useful suggestions. JOURNAL OF POLITICS, Vol. 51, No. 2, May 1989 Portions of this article appear in DEMOCRACY WITHOUT CITIZENS: THE MEDIA AND THE DECAY OF AMERICAN POLITICS by Robert M. Entman.  © 1989 by Robert M. Entman. Used by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Inc. 348 Robert M. Entman inson and Levy, 1986). 1 But this burgeoning research has not yet generated a theory that explicitly refutes the assumption of audience autonomy and explains more fully the media’s impact on public opinion. This article probes the theoretical underpinnings of the autonomy assumption and provides empirical evidence that media messages significantly influence what the public thinks by shaping what they think about. THE RESEARCH TRADITION The audience autonomy assumption provides the foundation for the minimal consequences position. The assumption is that audiences form their political opinions in relative independence from the media. There are two somewhat distinct variants of this position. The first emphasizes that audiences think about communications selectively, screening out information they do not like (Klapper, I960; cf. McGuire, 1985). The second holds that audiences pay so little attention and understand so little that the news cannot influence them (Neuman, 1986; cf. MacKuen, 1984). 2 In practice, both the selectivity hypothesis and the hypothesis of inattention and incomprehension (hereafter just â€Å"inattention†) hold that media messages tend only to reinforce existing preferences rather than helping to form new attitudes or change old ones. Thus the media have little net impact on politics. The central assumption of the more recent agenda setting research has been that media do exert significant influence, but only in a narrow sphere. In this view, the public’s autonomy is not complete, but its susceptibility to media influence is limited to agendas. Agenda research almost always includes a sentence like this: â€Å"Although a ‘minimal effects’ model most accurately describes the media’s ability to change opinions, recent research has shown that the media can play a much larger role in telling us what to think about, if not what to think† (Lau and Erber, 1985, p. 60; almost identical assertions appear throughout the literature, e. g. , McCombs and Shaw, 1972; MacKuen, 1984, pp. 72, 386; and even radical critiques such as Parenti, 1985, p. 23; also see MacKuen and Combs, 1981; Behr and Iyengar, 1985; Miller, Erbring, and Goldenberg, 1979). 3 Agenda scholarship does not provide a comprehensive theory that explains why media influence is confined to agendas, but selecDeFleur and Ball-Rokeach’s â€Å"dependency theory† (1982) describes an important theoretical alternativ e to the autonomy assumption, but that work predates most of the recent surge in empirical evidence. 2 Neuman (1986, chap. ) grounds his argument in the lack of evidence that media can teach specific information or enhance political sophistication. The concern in this paper is with political evaluations and preferences, which do not require much information—often a simple emotional response will do (cf. Abelson et al. , 1982). A related argument cites the public’s inability to recall specific stories. But the influence of a single news story or show is rarely of interest. The primary concern is the effect of repeated news messages over time (cf. Graber, 1984). But compare Iyengar and Kinder, 1987, and Protess et al. , 1987, for agenda setting research showing that media influence of agendas also shapes, respectively, the mass public’s criteria of political judgment and public officials’ behavior. 1 How the Media Affect What People Think 349 tivity and ina ttention again seem to be key. In the agenda setting view, the media can overcome these barriers in determining the issues people think about but not in shaping how they evaluate issues or candidates (the most explicit discussion is MacKuen, 1984). The problem with the agenda setting position is that the distinction between â€Å"what to think† and â€Å"what to think about† is misleading. Nobody, no force, can ever successfully â€Å"tell people what to think. † Short of sophisticated physical torture (â€Å"brainwashing†), no form of communication can compel anything more than feigned obeisance. The way to control attitudes is to provide a partial selection of information for a person to think about, or process. The only way to influence what people think is precisely to shape what they think about. No matter what the message, whether conveyed through media or in person, control over others’ thinking can never be complete. Influence can be exerted through selection of information, but conclusions cannot be dictated. If the media (or anyone) can affect what people think about—the information they process—the media can affect their attitudes. This perspective yields an assumption of interdependence: public opinion grows out of an interaction between media messages and what audiences make of them. I will call this the â€Å"interdependence model. The competing positions, the minimal consequences and the agenda perspectives, both endorse the assumption that audiences form preferences autonomously. I will call this the â€Å"autonomy model. † INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEDIA IMPACTS Combining a recognition of the interdependence of audiences and media with information-processing models developed by cognitive psychologists may offer the best foundation for a new understanding (cf. Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). There is no consensus among those who study information processing. But a number of generalizations pertinent to the mass media’s impacts can be gleaned from their work. Information-processing research shows that people have cognitive structures, called â€Å"schemas,†4 which organize their thinking. A person’s system of schemas stores substantive beliefs, attitudes, values, and preferences (cf. Rokeach, 1973) along with rules for linking different ideas. The schemas â€Å"direct attention to relevant information, guide its interpretation and evaluation, provide inferences when information is missing or ambiguous, and facilitate its retention† (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 73). Schemas are not filters used to select out all unfamiliar or uncomfortable information. As Bennett writes, â€Å"[I]nformation processing constructs [i. e. schemas] like party identification and ideological categories should not be reScholars have used many other terms, including â€Å"scripts,† â€Å"inferential sets,† â€Å"frames,â €™ and â€Å"prototypes. † While there are subtle differences among them, they need not concern us here. The term schema is as good as any, and for clarity’s sake I use the English plural â€Å"schemas† instead of the awkward â€Å"schemata. 4 350 Robert M. Entman garded as rigid cognitive frameworks that work infixedways to screen out unfamiliar information† (Bennett, 1981, p. 91). Certainly people fail to think about much of the news, but not necessarily because they choose only congruent messages, or because they inevitably misunderstand or deliberately ignore media reports. Selectivity and inattention are stressed by the autonomy model, but that model fails to explain why many citizens do think about a great deal of the new information they encounter. Information-processing theory recognizes and helps explain how attitudes emerge from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples’ existing beliefs. In Bennett’s (1981, p. 92) words, political thought is â€Å"data-driven† by external information and â€Å"conceptually-driven† by internal schemas. Information-processing theory suggests that whether people ignore or pay attention to new information depends more on its salience, on whether it meshes with their interests, than on whether it conflicts with their existing beliefs (Markus and Zajonc, 1985, pp. 162 and passim; Kinder and Sears, 1985, pp. 710-12). While people may resist knowledge that challenges their fundamental values (Axelrod, 1973), most can accommodate new information and even hold a set of specific beliefs that may appear dissonant, contradictory, or illogical to an outsider (cf. Lane, 1962). The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus contradicts the implicit model in much of media research. Rather than resisting or ignoring most new or dissonant media reports, as the autonomy model assumes, the information-processing view predicts that people are susceptible to significant media effects. In the information-processing perspective, a person first assesses a media report for salience. If salient, the person processes the news according to routines established in the schema system. Processing may lead the person either to store the information or discard it; if stored, the information may stimulate new beliefs or change old beliefs. So selectivity and inattention are not the whole story. Often people may screen out information that contradicts their current views; but other times they think about disturbing reports they find relevant. The notion of an audience that actively resists all potentially conflicting information rests upon an assumption of a deeply involved and knowledgeable citizenry, a vision that does not apply to most people (e. g. , Converse and Markus, 1979; Kinder and Sears, 1985). Common sense suggests it takes more information and time to change the minds of strong adherents than weak ones, but sometimes even loyalists do change. When the implications are not obvious—for example when the information is contained in the form of a subtle slant to the news (see Entman, 1989, chap. )—the probability increases that even activists will store conflicting data without experiencing any immediate dissonance. And while it may take many repetitions of a media message to pierce the public’s indubitable haze of neglect and distraction, this very same political indifference may enhance the likelihood that messages which do penetrate How the Media Affect What People Think 351 will have an im pact. Just because on most matters Americans have so little knowledge and such weakly-anchored beliefs, information provided by the media can significantly shape their attitudes. Not only do the majority of audience members lack detailed, expert knowledge or strong opinions (cf. Fiske, Kinder, and Larter, 1983); sometimes there are no old attitudes to defend. Many of the most significant political contests are played out over emerging issues or leaders; audiences do not have set attitudes toward them. That clears the path for significant media influence. TESTING MEDIA INFLUENCE Identification as liberal, moderate, or conservative is a key component of the political schema system that much of the public applies to political information. Ideological leanings affect responses to specific media eports; different identifiers may read the same message differently. This is why the media, in common with all other sources of information, cannot dictate public views and why an interdependence model seems appropriate. The interdependence model predicts that media influence varies according to the way each person processes specific news messages. Instead of treating ideo logy as a tool people use to screen out reports that conflict with their liberalism or conservatism, the model sees ideology as a schema that influences the use people make of media messages in more complicated ways. The interaction between the attributes of the message and the schemas of the audience shapes the impact of the news. One element of this interdependence is message salience, which may vary among the ideological groups. Stories that interest liberals may bore conservatives; items that intrigue ideologues on either side may not interest moderates, who have few strong beliefs. Another aspect of interdependence involves whether the message is relevant to peripheral or central attitudes. The centrality of a message may vary for different groups, since liberals and conservatives appear to structure their ideas distinctively. Central to liberalism is attachment to ideals of change and equality; central to conservatism is attraction to capitalism (Conover andj^eldman, 1981). The two groups probably process some media messages^differently. This decidedly does not mean liberals, for example, screen out all material that challenges liberalism. Consider an editorial praising the ideal of capitalist markets and proposing to make the post office a private enterprise. While the message conflicts with liberal ideology, it does so peripherally, since government ownership of public utilities is not fundamental to American liberalism. The message may not only bolster conservatism among conservatives, but weaken liberals’ commitment to liberalism, if only at the margin. Another point of interdependence involves whether the message comes from an editorial, with its overtly persuasive intent, or from a news story that is ostensibly designed merely to inform. Conservatives may be more likely 352 Robert M. Entman o screen out editorial than news items that favor the left, since the slant of news may not be obvious. Afinalaspect of interdependence lies in how new or unfamiliar the reported topic is. All else being equal, the less familiar the object of the news, the less likely a person will respond by fitting the report into an established category and maintaining a set attitude. Where the subject of the news is unfamiliar to all sets of ideological identifiers, all will be susceptible to media influence. Four hypotheses emerge from this use of information processing theory to develop an interdependence model of media influence. They are not all the hypotheses that merit exploration, but they are the ones that can be tested with the data available, and they should provide support for the superiority of the interdependence over the autonomy model. Hypothesis #1: Editorials affect ideological identifiers more than moderates. Those identifying as liberals or conservatives are likely to find ideologically-charged editorial messages salient. Those with less-focused commitments, the moderates, may not find ideological editorials relevant. Hypothesis #2: Liberal editorials should exert a leftward push on those attitudes of conservatives not central to their ideology. Hypothesis #3: Editorial content has stronger effects on new subjects of news coverage than on long-familiar ones. Hypothesis #4: News affects beliefs among liberals, moderates, and conservatives alike. People will tend to screen out news messages less than editorials. Shaped by objectivity rules, news stories are designed to appear neutral to audiences (e. g. , Schudson, 1978; Tuchman, 1978; Molotch and Boden, 1985). The appearance of neutrality may soften the audience’s defenses. DATA The dataset combines a national survey on Americans’ political attitudes from 1974 and 1976 with information on the political content of the newspapers read by respondents. The 1974 Michigan Content Analysis Study provides extensive information on the front page news and editorial page content of ninety-two newspapers throughout the country. The total number of news and editorial items employed here is nearly 18,000. 5 The content information (Institute for Social Research, 1978) is matched to data from a representative national survey, the University of Michigan Center for Political Studies poll of 1974. The sample analyzed consists of those who were surveyed and read  ° The study included ninety-six newspapers, of which four had incomplete data; readers of those four were excluded from the analysis. How the Media Affect What People Think 353 one of the ninety-two newspapers included in the Content Analysis Study, a total weighted sample of 1,292 persons. 6 Excluded were those who did not read a paper (approximately 30% of those surveyed) or who read papers for which no data were collected. 7 The content data were gathered for ten days during October and November, 1974. Even though the data were obtained over a short time period, a check suggests they accurately reflect the typical stands of the papers. For example, among the ninety-two newspapers, the Washington Post scores higher in editorial liberalism than the (defunct) Washington Star; the New York Daily News scores to the right of the New York Times, and so forth. 8 In any case, while far from perfect, the dataset is the most comprehensive collection linking media content to peoples’ attitudes. One measure of newspaper content taps diversity in news stories, the other liberalism in editorials. I expect both aspects of the newspaper’s message to encourage opinions to move toward more sympathy with liberal politicians, 6 The actual number of people interviewed was 1,575. The answers of some members of the sample were counted three times to make a weighted sample of 2,523. This was done in order to ensure adequate representation in the sample of sparsely populated areas of the count ry. Thus, the weighted sample is the most representative. 7 The demographics of the final reader subsample closely parallel those of the 1974 national cross section as a whole. The mean education of the entire original sample, including non-readers (n = 2,523), is 11. 5 years, the mean of the sample analyzed (n = 1,292) is 12. 2; the mean income, about $11,000 versus $12,000. On other demographic and political characteristics, the two groups are virtually identical. 8 Further enhancing confidence in the validity of the content measures is their use in such important studies as Erbring, Goldenberg, and Miller, 1980. 9 Each editorial item was coded for zero, one, or two assertions favoring or opposing liberal and conservative policy stands. The editorial liberalism index is a percentage formed by first counting the number of times a paper endorsed a liberal position or opposed a conservative position, then subtracting assertions favoring conservative or derogating liberal stands. The result was divided by twice the number of editorial items, since each item was coded for up to two liberal or conservative assertions. The higher the score, the more liberal the editorial page. This index uses variables 21 and 28 in the CPS Media Content Analysis Study 1974. A second measure employed data on news (variables 27 and 34 in the CPS study). The news diversity measure taps a dimension of news slant that audiences are less likely to screen than editorial liberalism. Like most aspects of news slant, it is a subtle trait of reporting that few audience members would notice. The front page news items were coded for mention of zero, one, or two problems. For each problem mention, coders noted whether two different actors overtly disagreed with each other. Each news item was coded as having zero, one, or two instances of two actors asserting different points of view. The diversity index is the number of times two actors expressed different positions divided by twice the number of stories. The higher the score, the more diversity of news. Examples of the actors coded in this variable include Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, Nelson Rockefeller, Democratic Party, Republican candidates, and business leaders. Thus, a story might concern inflation and unions, and might contain opposing assertions by Gerald Ford and a Democratic Senate candidate on both the causes of inflation and the value of unions. The story would be coded 2 for one disagreement on each of the two problems. If the two actors agreed (or voiced no opinions) on unions but disagreed on inflation, the code would be 1. If they agreed on both or neither agreed nor disagreed, the code would be 0. 354 Robert M. Entman groups, and ideas. The basis for predicting that news diversity moves audiences leftward is that the majority of local newspapers appear to promote a generally Republican and conservative perspective (cf. Bagdikian, 1974; Radolf, 1984). Their editorial and perhaps news inclinations do not favor liberalism. All else being equal, I believe those papers with higher diversity probably provide more information that challenges the conservative editorial baseline. In addition, the mere presence of conflicting views in the news may convey an awareness of the diversity of the country, including its variety of races, economic classes, and viewpoints. Such consciousness may promote tolerance of change, and empathy for positions or groups that challenge the status quo. 0 Diversity may also undermine authority by conveying the impression that a range of ideas is plausible, that the existing distribution of power, wealth, and status is not immutable. As for the other content measure, while many readers no doubt skip editorial pages, Bagdikian (1974) shows that the editorial perspective tends to be mirrored in news slant. The editorial liberalism index may indirectly reflect the political tendency of news coverage. The survey incl uded â€Å"feeling thermometer† questions. Interviewers asked respondents to express their feelings toward several well-known groups and politicians. Respondents chose numbers ranging from â€Å"0† for the coldest feelings, through â€Å"100† for the warmest, with â€Å"50† meaning neutral or mixed feelings. I constructed five attitude indexes using factor analysis. 11 The Liberal Feelings Jndex combined ratings of Edward Kennedy, Hubert Humphrey, liberals, Democrats, and unions. The Radical Feelings Index consisted of thermometer ratings of radical students, black militants, civil rights leaders, and policemen. The Poor Feelings Index tapped thermometers of poor people, blacks, and George Wallace. The Republican Feelings Index was created from ratings of Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, and Republicans. Finally, the Conservative Feelings Index rated big business, the military, and conservatives. 12 The Michigan survey also asked respondents for their stands on government guaranteed jobs; dealing with urban unrest by solving the problems of unemployment and poverty; protecting legal rights of those accused of crimes; A competing hypothesis might be that diversity challenges initial viewpoints, so that it would promote conservatism among liberals and vice versa. That idea is not borne out by the data. Diversity is consistently associated with more liberal views. 1 ‘ Surveys are described in Institute for Social Research, 1979. All feeling thermometers were classified on their face for relevance to the liberal-conservative continuum. Pertinent items received varimax factor analysis. Five factors had eigenvalues greater than 1. 0. Indexes added together scores on all feeling thermometer responses loading above . 40 on a factor. In two cases, items loaded more than . 40 on two factors; these were included on their highest loaded index. All dependent variable attitude indexes used in this paper have Cronbach Alpha reliability scores greater than . 80. 12 Policemen and Wallace loaded negatively on their respective factors. The feeling thermometer responses to each were subtracted from the sum of the other items in forming the indexes. 10 How the Media Affect What People Think 355 busing to achieve racial balance; the Equal Rights Amendment; integration of schools; government aid to minorities; and self-placement on the liberalconservative spectrum. 3 Using factor analysis again, all but one of the responses (to the ERA) were associated together and became the Policy Preferences Index. Twofinalvariables come from readers of sampled papers who participated in surveys during both 1974 and 1976. Their responses in 1976 provide an opportunity to check for media impacts on feelings toward a previously unknown presidential candidate, Jimmy Carter (Carter Index), and on presidential vote (Vote76). FINDINGS Testing the four p redicted media effects requires probing for impacts of editorial liberalism and news diversity on the seven attitudes and on presidential vote. Regression analysis enables us to see whether, with all else equal, readers of more liberal or diverse papers exhibit more liberal attitudes and voting behavior. Editorial liberalism taps the persuasive element of the newspaper, or, in agenda-setting terms, the aspect of the paper that attempts to â€Å"tell people what to think. † News diversity taps the putatively informational element that only â€Å"tells people what to think about. † The interdependence model holds that both editorials and news provide information to think about and thereby influence attitudes, whether intentionally or not. If selectivity or inattention precludes media influence, or if the effect is limited to agendas, the regressions should reveal no significant associations between attitudes and newspaper content. 14 Table 1 summarizes regression results for the impacts of newspaper content on the beliefs of the entire sample of readers. The feeling thermometers are coded from 0 to 100 so that higher scores are warmer (more favorable). The higher the policy preferences score, the more conservative the responses. Vote76 is 1 for Carter, 0 for Ford, so higher scores indicate voting for Carter. The regressions include the following additional variables to control for forces that might also influence attitudes: urban-rural place of residence; age; years of education; family income; race; region; party identification; and ideological self-identification. 15 The impacts of these non-media variables follow expecVariables 2265, 2273, 2281, 2288, 2296, 2302, and 2305 in the 1974 NES Codebook. Although partisanship and ideology are not truly interval variables, the results of the regressions suggest that it is quite reasonable to treat them as such. 15 These variables are coded as follows. Age: coded in years; non-South: 1 = North or West, 0 = South; income: coded in thousands; party i. d. : 7-point scale, 0 = strong Democrat, 3 = independent, 6 = strong Republican; urbanized: 1 = urban, suburban, 0 = rural; white race: 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite; education: coded in years; policy preferences index: adding six 7-point scales, so range is 6 = most liberal, 42 = most conservative; and ideology identification: 1 = most liberal, 4 = middle of the road or don’t know, 7 = most conservative. On the latter, note 14 13 356 Robert M. Entman tations, which bolsters confidence in the validity of the attitude measures. For a full display of coefficients for all independent variables, see Entman, 1987). Multicollinearity among the independent variables is not a problem. Of the forty-five intercorrelations, only three exceed . 20. The strongest was between education and income (r = . 357). Table 1 shows that the more editorially liberal the paper, the more warmly their readers re spond on the Liberal Feelings Index. This relationship suggests that editorial liberalism influences the public’s evaluations of key leaders and groups associated with the liberal coalition: in this case, Hubert Humphrey, Edward Kennedy, Democrats, unions, and liberals.